Historians have observed that Prince Henry of Portugal, also known as the 'Navigator,' was deeply invested in discovering a sea route to India. This was not just due to geographical curiosity but also to bypass the Muslim control over the eastern Mediterranean and the traditional land routes connecting India and Europe.
In 1497, the kings of Portugal and Spain divided the non-Christian world through the Treaty of Tordesillas, drawing an imaginary line in the Atlantic approximately 1,300 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands. Portugal gained the right to explore and occupy territories east of this line, while Spain claimed everything westward.
This division set the stage for Portuguese expeditions into the Indian Ocean. Bartholomew Dias, another Portuguese navigator, achieved a significant milestone by successfully navigating around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa in 1487 and proceeding along the eastern coast, believing he had discovered the long-sought sea route to India.
However, it wasn't until 1497 that a fleet of Portuguese ships embarked on an expedition to India, reaching their destination in approximately 11 months in May 1498. This marked a crucial moment in history, as it opened up direct maritime access between Europe and India, bypassing the traditional overland routes controlled by various powers in the region.
Portuguese Administration in India
The Bahmani Kingdom in the Deccan was dissolved into smaller kingdoms.
None of the powers possessed a fleet worth mentioning, and they had no plans to improve their maritime capabilities.
The Chinese emperor's imperial proclamation limited the nautical reach of Chinese ships in the Far East.
The Arab merchants and shipowners who had previously controlled the Indian Ocean commerce had nothing on the Portuguese in terms of organisation and cohesiveness.
The Portuguese also had guns mounted on their ships.
The viceroy, who ruled for three years, was in charge of the administration, together with his secretary and, subsequently, a council.
Next insignificance was the Vedor da Fazenda, who was in charge of income, cargoes, and fleet dispatch.
Francisco De Almeida
In 1505, King Ferdinand I of Portugal appointed a governor in India for three years and provided ample troops to safeguard Portuguese interests.
The newly appointed governor, Francisco De Almeida, had the mission of solidifying Portugal's presence in India and disrupting Muslim trade by capturing Aden, Ormuz, and Malacca.
The Portuguese fleet suffered a defeat by the combined Egyptian and Gujarat navies near Diu in 1507, resulting in the death of Almeida's son. However, the following year, Almeida avenged this defeat by defeating both navies.
Almeida aspired to establish Portuguese supremacy in the Indian Ocean, a strategy known as the Blue Water Policy (Cartaz system). This policy focused on maritime dominance rather than building a territorial empire, allowing Portugal to monopolize trade, especially in the profitable spice trade.
Alfonso de Albuquerque
Upon Almeida's death, Albuquerque took over as the Portuguese governor of India and played a crucial role in establishing Portuguese authority in the East.
Albuquerque strategically positioned strongholds at crucial maritime points, ensuring Portugal's control over the Indian Ocean.
Under his leadership, the Portuguese implemented a permission system for other ships and controlled key shipbuilding centers in the region.
One of Albuquerque's notable reforms was the abolition of sati, a significant social change during his reign.
Nino da Cunha
In November 1529, Nino da Cunha became the governor of Portuguese interests in India, and the administration headquarters shifted from Cochin to Goa almost a year later.
During his tenure, Da Cunha strengthened Portuguese influence by securing support from the Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, who granted the Portuguese control over Bassein and Diu.
Da Cunha also aimed to expand Portuguese influence in Bengal by establishing Portuguese settlements in Hooghly.
The Decline of the Portuguese
Successors to Afonso de Albuquerque were ineffective, leading to the eventual decline of Portuguese power in India.
The Portuguese administration's intolerance and coercion in religious matters, along with their focus on personal gain, led to anti-Portuguese sentiment among Indians.
By the latter part of the 16th century, emerging naval powers like England, Holland, and France challenged Portuguese and Spanish dominance in international trade, leading to their diminishing authority in India.
The growing influence of the Mughal Empire and the Marathas further eroded the Portuguese commercial monopoly in India.
Portuguese attention shifted to Brazil in Latin America, and with Portugal's annexation by Spain in 1580, Spanish interests took precedence over Portuguese interests, contributing to their decline in India.
The Dutch
The Dutch East India Company, known as Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie (VOC), was established around 1602 CE. They began operations in India by establishing their first centre at Masulipatnam, Andhra Pradesh, and subsequently set up commercial hubs in Gujarat (Surat, Broach, Cambay, and Ahmedabad), Kerala (Cochin), Bengal (Chinsurah), Bihar (Patna), and Uttar Pradesh (Agra). Pulicat, Tamil Nadu, initially served as their major base, later replaced by Nagapattinam. The Dutch triumphed over the Portuguese in the 17th century, becoming a dominant force in European trade in the East. They expelled the Portuguese from the Malay straits and the Indonesian islands, resisting English attempts to settle there in 1623.
Anglo-Dutch Rivalry
The English, emerging as formidable competitors in Eastern trade, posed a significant threat to Dutch economic interests. The competition escalated into violence, culminating in a truce in 1667. Under the agreement, the British relinquished claims to Indonesia, while the Dutch retreated from India to focus on their lucrative commerce in Indonesia. The Dutch monopolized trade in black pepper, spices, silk, cotton, indigo, rice, and opium.
Decline of Dutch in India
The English retaliated, culminating in the Dutch defeat in the Battle of Hooghly in November 1759, effectively ending Dutch ambitions in India. Unlike the British, the Dutch were primarily interested in trade rather than empire-building, particularly focusing on the Indonesian Spice Islands.
The English
The English East India Company, established around 1599 CE, received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth on December 31, 1600 CE, granting exclusive trade rights in the East. They gained a foothold in India when Captain William Hawkins arrived at the Mughal court in 1609 CE, and later received permission to establish a factory at Surat in 1612 CE. Sir Thomas Roe's diplomatic efforts in 1615 CE secured additional trading privileges. The English established factories across India, with Madras becoming a significant centre, later replaced by Bombay and Calcutta. The British expanded their influence through treaties with Indian rulers and strategic acquisitions, ultimately dominating Indian trade.
The French
The French East India Company, established in 1664 CE, began operations in India with factories in Surat, Masulipatnam, and Pondicherry. Francois Martin founded Pondicherry, which became a pivotal French stronghold. French-English conflicts, including the Carnatic wars, determined control over Indian territories. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 restored French industries in India but marked the end of French political dominance.
Pondicherry - The Nerve Centre of French
Francois Martin, the director of the Masulipatnam factory, was granted a location for a colony in 1673 by Sher Khan Lodi, the administrator of Valikandapuram (under the Bijapur Sultan).
Francois Martin established Pondicherry as a significant location after gaining command in 1674. It became the French bastion in India. Francois Martin was succeeded by Caron the next year.
The French East India Company's commercial centres included Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, and Qasim Bazar.
First Carnatic War (1740–48)
The Anglo-French War in Europe was triggered by the Austrian War of Succession, and the First Carnatic War was a continuation of that conflict.
The Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle, which brought the Austrian War of Succession to a close, concluded the First Carnatic War in 1748.
Madras was returned to the English under the provisions of this treaty, while the French received their colonies in North America in exchange.
Second Carnatic War (1749–54)
Dupleix, the French governor who had led the French armies to victory in the First Carnatic War, aspired to expand his authority and political influence in southern India by engaging in local dynastic rivalries to beat the English.
The English and the French agreed not to intervene in native rulers' quarrels.
Furthermore, each side was left in control of the territory that they had occupied at the time of the pact.
It became clear that Indian authority was no longer required for European success; rather, Indian authorities were becoming increasingly reliant on European backing.
Third Carnatic War (1758–63)
When Austria attempted to reclaim Silesia in 1756, the Seven Years' War (1756–63) broke out in Europe.
Once again, the United Kingdom and France were on opposing sides.
The Treaty of Peace Paris (1763) restored the French industries in India, but after the war, French political dominance vanished.
The Dutch having already been beaten in the Battle of Bidara in 1759, the English became the dominant European force on the Indian subcontinent.
Danes
The Danish East India Company, founded in 1616, established centres in Tranquebar and Serampore, focusing more on missionary activities than commercial endeavours. The Danish industries were eventually sold to the British in 1845.
European Powers
English Success against Other European Powers
The British East India Company's private enterprise model, superior navy, late arrival of the Industrial Revolution in other European nations, disciplined soldiers, innovative military tactics, and less religious zeal contributed to their success over other European powers in India. The Bank of England's creation further fueled British dominance by financing military endeavours against rivals like France and Spain.
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